Intravenous infusion-NURSES OUTLOOK

INTRAVENOUS INFUSION

                                           

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the demonstration, the students will be able to:

·       Enumerate the purposes of infusion.

·       Discuss physiological mechanism of infusion.

·       List the types of fluid used for infusion.

·       Describe the procedure used for infusion.

·       Discuss the complications of I.V infusion.

INTRODUCTION:

ARTERIAL BLOOD GAS ANALYSIS,,,,NURSESOUTLOOK

                                ARTERIAL BLOOD GAS ANALYSIS

Arterial blood gas provides information about arterial blood ,pH, partial pressure of arterial oxygen (PaO2),Partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide.(PaCO2),arterial oxygenation saturation ,acid – base balance and to some extend ventilation.

Analysis of arterial blood gases

SOCIOMETRY AND SOCIOGRAM,,NURSESOUTLOOK

SOCIOMETRY AND SOCIOGRAM

          To study the interaction of children, J.L. Moreno developed the sociometric techniques by using sociogram.

-        It enables the teachers to get a comprehensive picture of the structure of social relationship in the entire class by means of certain instruments and a methods of interpreting and applying the result obtained

-        It is a special method of obtaining the information through oral questions, written response and analyzing the record in studying the group.

-        It is a technique where by each members is asked to state the kind of relationship. Which he hold towards other members. This responses have been recorded graphically and represented in sociogram.

PERSONALITY TESTS/PROJECTIVE TESTS,,NURSESOUTLOOK

PERSONALITY TESTS/PROJECTIVE TESTS

                        These techniques are based on the phenomenon of projection. In these techniques relatively indefinite and unstructured stimuli are provided to the subject and he is asked to structure them in any way he likes. By doing so he unconsciously projects his  own desires, hopes, fears repressed wishes etc and thus not only reveals his private world but gives a proper clue to estimate his total personality.

DEFINITIONS

1.     Frank (1939) defined “ projective techniques is a kind of x-ray into those aspects of personality

2.     English and English (1958) “ projective techniques are the process of preserving objective stimuli in line with personal interest, desires and fears or expectations”.

SUMMATED SCALE OR LIKERT SCALE...NURSESOUTLOOK

SUMMATED (LIKERT) SCALE

          To measure the social attitude likert type scale is used. It uses only the definitely favourable and unfavourable statements. It excludes intermediate opinions. It consists of a series of statements to which the respondent is to react the respondent indicates the degree of agreement or disagreement. Each response is given a numerical score and the total score of a respondent is found out by summing up his different scores for different purposes. This total score indicate his position on the continuum.

          The likert scale uses several degree of agreement or disagreement (eg. Strongly approve, approve, undecided, disapprove, strongly disapprove). These five points will constitute the scale. Each point of the scale carries a score “strongly approve” is given the highest score (5 or + 2) and ‘Strongly disapprove is given the least score (1 or – 2)

AV AIDS- PREPERATION..NURSESOUTLOOK

OVER HEAD PROJECTOR

               It projects transparencies with brilliant screen images suitable for use in a lighted room. The teacher faces the class as he/she use OHP, and the class views the projections. The teacher can write or draws diagrams on the transparency while he teaches, these are projected simultaneously on the screen by the OHP, there it is used as aid and tool in teaching learning situation.

Uses:

• To develop concept and sequences in a subject matter area, each component part can be presented as the teacher senses the student’s readiness for the next step.
• To make marginal notes on the transparencies for the use of the teacher can be carried without exposing them to the class, when projected.
• To show relationship by means of transparent overlays in contrasting colour. This would be especially effective in anatomy and physiology classes
• As a recording device for presenting minutes of a group discussion visually.
• To show statistics and other graphs of mortality and morbidity rates of various disease.

Advantages:

• It enables her to point out features appearing on the screen by pointing to the materials at the projector itself and same time she can observe the students too.
• It offers a very flexible tool for teaching tool for teaching because a wide variety of materials can be used for many different teaching purposes.
• It can be used in a fairly lighted room.
• Materials projected can be changed quickly and easily, shapes can be presented and compared, colors may be included, and exposure can be controlled.
• To tests students “performances” while other classmate observe.
• To give the illusion of motion in the transparency Eg:- Circulation of blood through the heart, through the use of special device attached to the OHP, this term as Tec animation.

Transparency:

               Single image that is seen by means of light passing through a visual projected, is usually given to those materials which are projected in the overhead projector.

SLIDES

               A slide is a small piece of transparent material on which a single pictorial image or scene or graphic image has been photographed or reproduced otherwise.

               Molded slide range in size form 2^* 2 or 4.5^* 4’. Slides can be made from photographs and pictures by the teachers and pupils taking photographs and snap shots when they go on field trips for historical, geographical, literary or scientific excursions.

               The arrangement of slides in proper sequence according to the topic discussed, is an important aspect of teaching with them.

               A teacher needs to use imaginatively and creatively to make the best use of them.

ADVANTAGES

·       

      Help in retention of the material taught in the minds of pupils.

·       Attract attention

·       Arrows interest

·       Assessed lesson development

·       Test student understanding

·       Review instruction

·       Facilitates student teacher participation.

MODEL

               It is a life size miniature or over size or original size whether workable or not, whether it differs from or not from original size often objectively studied, which is very useful in teaching. Models are concrete objects to explain clearly the structure or functions of real things.

ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF A MODEL:

·       Accuracy.

·       Simplicity.

·       Utility.

·       Solidity.

·       Useful.

FUNCTIONS OF MODEL

·       It simplifies reality

·       Concretizes abstract concepts

·       Enables as to reduce or enlarge objects

·       Provides the correct concept of an real object.

·       A working model explains the various processes of objects and machines.

·       Promotes  Creative interest among people

Types of model:

1.     Scale model

2.     Simplified model

3.     Working model

4.     Cross section model

LCD PROJECTOR

DEFINITION

               LCD projectors have revolutionized the audio visual industry. With a few clips of the mouse and strokes of the keyboard, whatever you type on your computer appears instantly on a projection screen in real time.

Procedure

Step 1

               Plug the LCD projector into a power outlet. Completely plug the power cord into the back of the LCD projector

Step 2

               Use a VGA cable (usually a 15-pin male to male) to connect your computer to the LCD projector. Insert one end of the cable into the VGA connector (sometimes this connector is blue) in the back of your computer and do the same in the back of your LCD Projector. If the LCD projector has more than 1 VGA connector, choose the one that says something like “line in” or “inform computer”.

Step 3

               May take a couple of minutes to warm up. Open the computer file or document you wish to display. When you are ready to project your image press “ function” (Fn) plus “F₈”. This combination of keys sense your computers display to the LCD projector.

Step 4

               Use sound to enhance your presentation. Often LCD projectors have buily-in speakers. If this is the case, you may need to run a RGB cable from the LCD projector to the back of your computer. If you wish to use external speakers instead of those that are part of the LCD projector (the built-in speakers are generally of poor quality), plug the speakers directly into the head phone jack off your laptop.

Step 5

               Turn off your LCD projector properly. Usually you most press the  “off” button once, and a dialogue box pops up asking if you are sure you want to turn it off. Press the off button again, and the machine powers down. Leave the machine plug in until the cooling fan stops. Be careful when disconnecting VGA cables from the back of the LCD projector and laptop, as the pins end of the cable are delicate.

Step 6

               Know some other features of your LCD  projector. Most have a focus knob to make the picture clearer. If your image appears distorted (wider ion one side than the other or small at the top, big at the bottom) you must adjust the keystone setting, which helps to project a rectangular image. You can fix keystone distortion manually by moving the LCD projector to position it near the Centre of the screen at which it is aiming.

Advantages

·       Enables a lot of people to be able to see something even from a distance

Disadvantage

·       Image quality may not be as good when projected

FLASH CARDS/FLIP CHARTS

INTRODUCTION

               These award winning step by step guides, designed for school and home use, provide instruction on commonly used software applications.

DEFINITION

A flashcard is a card that is used as a learning aid, One write say question on a card and an answer overleaf. Flash cards can be vocabulary historical dates, formulas or any subject matter that can be learned via a question and answer format. Flash cards are widely used as a learning drill to memorization by way of spaced repetition.

FLASH CARDS

A flash card is a part of a set of cards that has numbers, letters, pictures or words on it. They are commonly used for drilling students on facts. Flash cards may also be used to enhance student memory. Try playing a memory game with the facts on the cards. This is a great and fun way to help the student memorize.

ADVANTAGES

·       Flash cards are easy to carry. More concept can be introduced in several parts which can show progress or movements.

·       They can be easily developed, and the audience can even participate in making some of the cant’s.

DISADVANTAGES

·       Flash cards can only be used for smaller groups of not more than 15 persons. However, they are best used for home visits or for face to face sessions.

·       The smaller size of the flash card somehow diminishes the impact of the presentation and is not as dramatic as, say, the flip chart.

FLIP CHART

Flip charts are useful for teaching large groups at one time. A flip chart is a large group of papers that are attached at the top so that the papers can be flipped over one at a time to show a new page of paper. Flip charts are often placed on a easel, which allows the teacher to easily move it. A teacher can use a flip chart when she is showing different parts of a lesson, stages in the process of something, steps of something,or a progress of a story as it unfolds. Flip charts are very versatile and can be used for all classes.

ADVANTAGES

Convenient to use because the concepts needed to be explained are already prepared.

Drawings can be put together so that they can be arranged in the order the topic will be discussed.

Flip charts made from cloth have been found to be of popular use because they can be folded or rolled and can be easily carried. Unlike chants made of cardboard/illustration board, flip charts made from cloth do not get easily damaged when wet.

DISADVANTAGE

·       Flip charts can only be used for an audience of not more than 25 persons. Otherwise, these will not be seen? Especially by those located far from where the charts are shown.

·       Since the illustrations in the charts do not show much movement and have to be simplified for visual impact, there is a still the need for an effective verbal enrichment/explanation of the concepts presented.

CHECKLIST AND ATTITUDE SCALE...NURSESOUTLOOK

CHECK LIST

          A checklist consist of a listing of steps, activities as behavior which the observer records when the incident occurs. While preparing a checklist teacher must keep in mind what kind of behavior are important to record and what kind of objectives are to be evaluated.

          A checklist enables the observer to note only whether or not a trait or characteristic in present.

Suggestions to follows while using checklist

-        Checklist should relate directly to learning objectives.

-        Checklist needs to be confined to performances area that can be assessed sufficiently by examining positive and negative criteria and when sufficient opportunity for observation exists.

-        Use checklist only when you are interest in ascertaining whether a particulars trait or characteristic is present or absent.

-        Clearly specify the traits or characteristics to be observed.

-        Have a separate checklist for each candidate individual observations can be recorded on a master checklist.

-        The observes must be trained how to observe what to observe and how to record the observed behavior.

-        Multiple observations provide a more accurate assessment of performance than a single observation.

-        Students should be evaluated in the natural setting or one closely as possible to real situation.

-        A completed checklist should be given to each student for review followed by an individual session with the student, to discuss the strength and weakness of the performance and formulate a plan to improve the performance.

     ATTITUDE SCALES

-        These are used for measuring the social attitudes.

-        Questionnaires is prepared, by the items in the questionnaires are the attitude of an individual towards a matter thing, and object or system and score will be allotted for each item.

-        We will ask the individual to express his response towards an object or system on the basis of his responses, he is assigned a score which indicates the position.

-        Some relevant and indirect statement will also be used to reveal the attitude.

-        The scale also specifies the crucial shades of opinions.

RATING SCALES - NURSESOUTLOOK

RATING SCALES (Directed observation)

DEFINITION :

“Rating is a term applied to expression of opinion or judgement regarding some situation, object or character. Opinion are usually expressed on a scale of values”.

“Rating techniques are devices by which judgement may be qualified. A rating scales is a device by which the opinion concerning a trait can be systematized”.

TYPES OF RATING SCALES :

1)    Descriptive rating scale : Provide for each trait a list of descriptive phrases from which the rates selects the one most applicable item being rated, selected usually by means of a check mark.

2)    Numerical rating scale : The rater assigns a code numbers and approximate number to each trait of the person being rated or to the descriptive phases arranged in order of the degree level intensity or frequency with which they indicate possession or lack of occurrence of each trait. The number of specifications depend on the nature of research problem.

3)    Graphic rating scale :  Descriptive phrases closely correspond to the numerical points on the scale printed horizontally at various points from lowest to highest. The rater indicates the performances standing in respect to each trait by placing a check mark at an appropriate point along the line. Here the degree of each characteristic is arranged so that the rates can make as five distinctions as he whishes to make. This will help the rates to indicate his own performance.

4)    Comparative rating scale. The rates has clear knowledge of the activities of the given groups or individuals. The positions on the rating scale are explicity defined in terms of people with known characteristics. The rates may be asked to specify the comparative ability of a teachers with referenced to the teaching in a college.

USES OF RATING SCALE :

          To evaluate skills, product out comes, activities, interest, attitudes and personal characteristics.`

ADVANTAGES OF RATING SCALE :

-        Easy to administer and to score.

-        Can be used for a large group of students.

-        Wide range of application.

-        Clarity of feedback to student.

DISADVANTAGES :

-        Misuse can result in a consequent decrease in objectivity.

DISIRABLE QUALITIES :

-        Clarity, variety, simple, relevance, objectivity, useful, precision, uniqueness.

PRINCIPLES FOR PREPARING RATING SCALES :

-        It directly related to learning objectives

-        Needs to be confined to performance areas that can be observed.

-        Clearly define the specific trait or mode of behavior

-        The trait or behavior should be readily observable, it should be observed in number of situation.

-        Allow some space in the rating scale card for the rates to give supplementary remarks.

-        3 to 7 rating position may need to be provided.

-        There should be provision to omit items, the teaches feels unqualified to judge.

-        Pooled ratings from more than one observers participation in instrument development will make the scale more objective, clear valid and reliable.

-        All raters should be oriented to the specific scale as well as the process of rating in general.

-        The rates should be unbiased and trained

-        Consider evaluation setting, feed backs and student participation.

-        All raters should be aware that rating scales are open to errors resulting to subjective judgments required of the observers. Errors may be due to leniency contract error and hole effects etc.

-        Change the ends of the scale, so that the ‘good’ is not always at the top or always at the bottom.

-        Assure the rater that his anonymity will be maintained.

LIMITATIONS FOR RATING SCALES :

-        It is difficult or dangerous to fix up rating about may aspects of an individual.

-        Halo effects in the judgment may take place.

-        Chances life the rates may over estimate the qualities of a known person and under estimate those of unknown person.

-        The rates does not want to make extreme judgment chances of subjective evaluation thus the sclas may become unscientific and unreliable.